Introduction
As stated in the Cambridge Dictionary Online (2023), a border is defined as “a line that has been agreed to divide one country from another”. A similar territorial perspective is offered by the Collins Dictionary Online (2023), which describes a border as “the dividing line between two countries or regions” and “sometimes [a reference] to the land close to that line”. These definitions, grounded in the immediate common-sense notion of border, serve as a foundational point for our discussion on this concept. Therefore, we can raise multiple questions, such as: What variables contribute to the creation of that line? Who is responsible for its creation? Does that line undergo changes over time, and if so, what factors drive those changes? Do the border locals perceive and experience that line in the same way? By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
- understand the concept of border in its complexity and polysemy through the analysis of various semiotic resources;
- recognise multiple perspectives of borders (geopolitical, social, etc.) and understand their synergies;
- reflect on different representations and experiences within borders and beyond boundaries.
1.1. Much more than lands: from geopolitical boundaries to a holistic understanding of the concept of border
To understand and critically examine the concept of border in its polysemy, it is essential to consider the abstractionism inherent in it.
Figure 1 depicts a painting by Robert Motherwell (1967). How would you describe it? At first glance, it may appear to be a set of dark figures, right? Now, let’s add the title of the painting, “Elegy to the Spanish Republic”. Does this additional information alter or assist in deciphering its message? Perhaps, with this brief historical background, the abstract figures now seem to metaphorically represent a conflict between death and life in that period, shedding light on the pain of the author in apprehending that reality.
Figure 1. Representation of “Elegy to the Spanish Republic” (1967)
What is the point of presenting this painting and what is the relationship between the painting and a border? The purpose is to emphasise the parallel between the interpretation of the artwork and the understanding of borders. In both cases, it is essential to look beyond the surface and deconstruct the process of becoming a “physical materialisation” to understand the final product as a complex and diachronic construct shaped by political, historical, and sociocultural variables that establish synergies with each other. However, when we refer to “border”, what exactly are we talking about?
Firstly, it is crucial to acknowledge the existence of different types of borders:
(1) Geopolitical and territorial borders, including,
(1.1) Nation-state borders (Paasi, 2022), aligning with the definitions from the dictionaries cited earlier.
(1.2) Regional borders (ibidem), representing the socio-spatial lines and boundaries that exist inter- and intra-urbanistic contexts, encompassing legal rights.
(1.3) Labour market areas (ibidem), extending beyond the administrative organisation of the nation-state and regional borders to underscore economic exchanges (European Commission, 2018).
(2) Symbolic borders (Chouliaraki & Georgiou, 2019), comprising discourses produced by the state apparatus (e.g. the government) and ideological state apparatuses (e.g. the media, schools, religions) (Althusser, 1970, cited in Dervin, 2021) to shape public opinion.
(3) Linguistic borders (Saraceni & Jacob, 2018), serving as delimitations between different language systems or varieties.
(4) Cultural borders (Shimoni, 2006), which should be seen in a top-down perspective, as the result of global forces; and in a bottom-up perspective, where the local context has influence, as well, in people’s perception of boundaries.
In the following sections, we will focus on nation-state and regional borders to reflect on the linguistic and cultural diversity that characterises them.
A nation-state border is more than a mere delineation on a map; it serves as an ideological and symbolic manifestation shaping the perception of the territorial space. This contributes significantly to the construction and affirmation of a national collective identity (Kolosov, 2020; Paasi, 2022), and fosters a sense of belonging for individuals within that space and their relationships with its inhabitants. The configuration of a territory and its mapping with delineated borders enable the creation of an “idea of state sovereignty” (Ushakin, 2009, cited by Kolosov, 2020) within a shared imaginarium of a nation-state. Adopting topological thinking (Allen, 2016), we must analyse a territory beyond its geometry and topography. It is not a static entity, but a product of dynamic power relations and policies. In this context, we can not divorce the geographical understanding of the spatiality of a border from the political facet (Ek, 2012) and its social perspective (Nail, 2016). In his social approach, Thomas Nail (idem) goes further and argues that a theory of border necessitates a consideration of “kinopolitical history”. This involves understanding social movements and the various forms of circulation as integral parts of border history, particularly the dynamics of expansion and expulsion. These dynamics manifest as asymmetrical power relations, where one space dominates over other(s) (Pratt, 1993; Putsche, 2022). Along these lines, Elden (2009) views territory as a space where multiple geographies of terror, threat and fear are practised, sometimes leading to extreme consequences. Indeed, historic memory of those motions associated with an ideological imperialist ambition can result in a process of modern colonisation and, consequently, to forced migration. Kolosov (2020) refers to this process as “phantom pain”, where the desire to reclaim a once-annexed territory, because it is felt by people in the present as “their land”, violates the sovereignty of the other nation-state. Even in non-extreme cases, asymmetry is evident in the inequality between the organisational, administrative, and social structures of neighbouring countries (Hamman, 2019; Putsche, 2022). This inequality may compromise transnational cooperation and the social cohesion of that region.
1.2. One is not born, but rather becomes a cross-border local: ways of living, feeling and being in between and beyond boundaries
We live in an era of “liquid modernity” (Bauman, 2000), characterised by the fluidity of borders due to processes such as globalisation, digital development and migration. While these globalising forces encourage the dissolution of borders, events such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the emergence of radical and populist speeches, – often draped in nationalist, internal security concerns (Paasi et al., 2022) and in hate crimes against immigrants (Entorf & Lange, 2023) -, paradoxically reinforce the notions of expansion and expulsion, solidifying borders as divisive markers. The images below exemplify this perspective: in Figure 2, we can observe a wall delineating the separation between the Mexico-United States of America (USA) border; and, in Figure 3, a photo depicts the militarised border between North and South Korea.
Figure 2. The wall between Mexico-USA border, at Tijuana
Figure 3. Militarised border between North and South Koreas, at Panmunjom
Despite the 13th Article of the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” (1948) affirming that “Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State”, negative attitudes, as mentioned above, hinder the social inclusion of immigrants and refugees and impede the development of their sense of belonging to the community.
Do you imagine the profound impact of leaving behind and giving up everything you have built in your life? What emotions would this invoke?
To gain insight into the experiences and emotions of refugees, consider watching “Cruzar un muro”, a short film depicting refugees’ sailing experiences. Reflecting on these experiences underscores the importance of breaking down borders to actualise this fundamental right and provide hope, enabling individuals to perceive the world as their home.
Within the context of a local border living experience, individuals often grapple with their “border identity” in an internal and dilemmatic way. In her poem “To live in the borderlands”, Gloria Anzaldúa delves into her mestiza heritage and identity shaped by the experience of residing on the Mexico-USA border. She reflects on the intricacies of navigating the multiple voices of her ancestors, who share a history marked by conflict in that particular space.
For a more profound understanding of space, it is crucial to consider its “plasticity” (Jones, 2022; Malabou, 2008), i.e., the capacity to adapt to the multiple influences in a physical space (e.g. political, social, historical), while simultaneously resisting change. Malabou (ibidem) highlights the material world as a product of a time-space continuum marked by tensions between transformative and fixity forces. Taking this into consideration, as well as the impact of linguistic programmes and policies on identity (McKinney, 2017), we can either contribute to reinforcing the system in a functional way or to resistance. In the face of the complexity associated with new demographics, it becomes imperative not only to discuss the coexistence and contact between different languages and cultures in these spaces (Saraceni & Jacob, 2018) but also to reflect on the dynamics and cross-linguistic borders in contexts of linguistic and cultural diversity.
Contrary to the prevalent paradigm of borders as “separating marks” (Morello, 2017), they can also be viewed as spaces of contact, encounters, sharing and opportunities. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate this fact: the first focuses on humanitarian aid at the Poland-Ukraine border, while the second highlights a couple at the Switzerland-France-Germany border.
Figure 4. Humanitarian aid at the border Poland-Ukraine
Figure 5. Lovers at the border Switzerland-France-Germany
In line with the above, we present two testimonies of Portugal-Spain border locals, extracted from the documentary “Portunhol” (Martins, 2022). These testimonials emphasise the “vivência universalista” [universalist living] (ibidem), an experience characterised by contextual linguistic and cultural diversity within a global citizenship perspective. In this perspective, boundaries fade away, creating an environment where the richness of diversity is felt without constraints:
Testimony 1 – “Até à pandemia, não tínhamos dado conta de que havia uma fronteira. Para nós, era uma linha imaginária, eram dois países, sim, mas nunca tínhamos percebido os inconvenientes que isso trazia” [Until the pandemic, we had not realised that there was a border. For us, it was an imaginary line, two countries, yes, but we had never realised the inconveniences it brought.] |
Testimony 2 – “É incrível, porque as pessoas que vêm de fora não têm noção que é uma coisa tão natural para nós, que é tão perto, e que uma curva está a dividir Portugal de Espanha” [It is incredible, because people coming from outside have no idea that it is such a natural thing for us, that it is so close, and that a mere curve is what divides Portugal from Spain.] |
The same nation-state border can also be experienced in different ways in distinctive regions. Take, for example, the Vilar Formoso-Quadrazais border, situated in a Portuguese region along the Portugal-Spain border (figure 6 below). Locals there co-created a linguistic code known as “gíria quadrazenha”, which is comprehensible only among themselves. This code was specifically devised to speed up the organisation of smuggling, which has a historical tradition in that region, and to impede understanding by outsiders, especially the police. This scenario vividly evidences the role of languages as social, existential and intercultural experiences.
Figure 6. Vilar Formoso-Quadrazais border
To preserve the linguistic and cultural diversity of the Argentina-Brazil-Paraguay triple-border, the subversive group of intellectuals “Portunhol Selvagem” created “portuñol” as a type of translanguaging practice. Douglas Diegues, a member of the group, authored several poems that lead us to a paradigm of conceiving art as a sociolinguistic intervention to empower the languages spoken in that region. In this sense, languages are permeable and fluid entities that can blend on both an individual and micro plan (self-management of the communicative repertoire of individuals) and on a social, relational, and macro level (in multilingual and multicultural contexts). This blending can lead to a border experience as a “sociophysical” space of alternative conviviality.
In conclusion, while borders share common characteristics, such as linguistic and cultural diversity and space plasticity, they also possess idiosyncrasies provided by geopolitical, historical and social variables, making each border contextually unique and singular in its pluralities. However, as we saw, those pluralities are not always seen and lived in a positive way, compromising the sustainability of our societies. As educators, our role is to contribute to linguistic and cultural diversity education, specifically in nation-state and regional borders, to empower future teachers as active agents in transforming borders as “third spaces” (Bhabha, 1994) of human existence and shared experiences.
Unit 2. Living in or between borders: challenges and opportunities
Unit 1 revealed the existence of different types of borders, ranging from formal territorial ones designated as dividing lines, subject to state surveillance and control, to geopolitical borders shaped by political, economic, and commercial logics. Additionally, symbolic and linguistic borders were also considered. These guide social, cultural, and identity flows in various domains, engaging in constant negotiation. Beyond geographical limits or fixed bridges connecting territories, it can be asserted that these flows delineate what we refer to as symbolic borders.
In Unit 2, we delve deeper into the multifaceted nature of borders, which overlap in their geopolitical, social, linguistic, and cultural, and human dimensions. These borders constitute comprehensive, more or less tangible, and palpable space-times, serving as stages for various social practices and discursive patterns. These practices and patterns are sometimes contradictory, dualistic, and differentiating, influencing the meanings we attribute to borders, both ours and others’. Moreover, they shape how we experience the challenges and opportunities of living in or between borders.
And in the end, what are these challenges and opportunities?
To ponder on this theme, we turn to literature, which metaphorically plays a crucial role in helping us evaluate and deeply understand the nuances of reality. Through literature, we may transition to a more objective reality, which allows for the apprehension of various perspectives and human experiences through the voices of those who inhabit the reality of borders, specifically the Brazil-Uruguay border.
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
- expand your understanding of the concepts of symbolic and linguistic borders;
- identify different types of challenges and opportunities of living in these borders;
- recognize linguistic and cultural diversity, both as a challenge and as a resource, when living in border regions.
2.1. (Re)Discovering our borders
Nota. Cover image from Global Grey Ebooks, based on the public-domain edition of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Lewis Carroll, 1865)
It is possible that you are familiar with or have heard of Alice, the character from Lewis Carroll’s literary work ‘Alice in Wonderland‘. Yes, indeed, she is the bored young girl who, driven by curiosity, followed a hurried rabbit, leaned over its burrow, and fell, fell, fell, until landing in an extraordinary world, contrary to everything she knew and considered conventional.
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do […] when suddenly a White Rabbit with pink eyes ran close by her.
There was nothing so very remarkable in that; nor did Alice think it so very much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself, ‘Oh dear! Oh dear! I shall be late!’ (when she thought it over afterwards, it occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at this, but at the time it all seemed quite natural); but when the Rabbit actually took a watch out of its waistcoat-pocket, and looked at it, and then hurried on, Alice started to her feet, for it flashed across her mind that she had never before seen a rabbit with either a waistcoat-pocket, or a watch to take out of it, and burning with curiosity, she ran across the field after it, and fortunately was just in time to see it pop down a large rabbit-hole under the hedge.
In another moment down went Alice after it, never once considering how in the world she was to get out again. (Carrol, 2022, p. 4-5)
This episode represents only the first of many borders crossed by the protagonist along unimaginable and intriguing paths, making her oscillate between the desire to return home and the curiosity to remain and unravel the surrounding strangeness. This journey leads her to dreamlike spaces and encounters with eccentric creatures that challenge her understanding of the world and herself. Alice realises that she is facing a unique opportunity and reflects upon it:
‘It was much pleasanter at home,’ thought poor Alice, ‘when one wasn’t always growing larger and smaller, and being ordered about by mice and rabbits. I almost wish I hadn’t gone down that rabbit-hole—and yet—and yet—it’s rather curious, you know, this sort of life! I do wonder what can have happened to me! When I used to read fairy-tales, I fancied that kind of thing never happened, and now here I am in the middle of one! (Carroll, 2022, p. 22).
Thus, Alice’s journey symbolises the complexity of the human experience, often marked by the duality between boldness and hesitation, aspects that intertwine in the narrative web of Wonderland.
Through reading the book with Alice, we learn that questions play a crucial role in the processes of seeking (self)knowledge. They are important tools to stimulate critical thinking and enable the (de)construction of (pre)conceptions, as they guide us to our internal world and allow a deeper understanding of who we are in relation to the world and the people who inhabit it – both influencing and being influenced by it. This contributes to the (re)discovery of our own borders.
In this sense, we need to enhance our ability to understand and respect others’ perspectives, experiences, and values. It is essential to move towards the Other, entering their existential space-time, to recognise and appreciate the diverse coexisting realities that also find expression within us. That is, to exercise “the appreciation of the diverse diversities of the self and the other” (Dervin, 2010, p. 157). Thus, placing ourselves in Alice’s shoes represents, potentially, a fruitful exercise in alterity and empathy.
Would you be capable of such a feat? How would you feel if, suddenly, you found yourself at a crossroads, confronted by an enigmatic cat with a broad and perpetual smile, reciting bewildering and philosophical advice?
That’s what happened to Alice at a certain point in her pilgrimage:
— Cheshire Puss, she began, rather timidly, […] would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?
— That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,’ said the Cat.
— I don’t much care where — said Alice.
— Then it doesn’t matter which way you go, said the Cat.
— So long as I get somewhere,’ Alice added as an explanation.
— Oh, you’re sure to do that,’ said the Cat, ‘if you only walk long enough. (Carroll, 2022, p. 42)
This passage suggests the importance of having clarity regarding our goals and destinations when making decisions since the path to follow naturally depends on the place or what we wish to achieve. However, unlike Alice, who chose to live her adventures, expressing indifference about the direction to take, many of us, at times, may not be as fortunate; we don’t have the opportunity to choose our destinations, which simply unfold before us. Driven by our instincts, desires, or needs, we are led, for reasons beyond our control, to places never imagined.
In an exercise of empathy, have you ever imagined yourself in the shoes of an immigrant? For instance, in the position of a war refugee, where the lack of control over one’s destiny is a stark reality and the absence of true choices prevails?
Often, the priority is simply to find a safe place, regardless of how uncertain or challenging the path may be. Yes, when crossing borders of any kind, it is common to be engulfed in fear and uncertainty; it is in those moments that our vision can become obscured when confronting the unknown, as demonstrated in this next episode.
The players all played at once without waiting for turns, quarrelling all the while, and fighting for the hedgehogs; and in a very short time the Queen was in a furious passion, and went stamping about, and shouting ‘Off with his head!’ or ‘Off with her head!’ about once in a minute. Alice began to feel very uneasy: to be sure, she had not yet had any dispute with the Queen, but she knew that it might happen any minute, ‘and then,’ thought she, ‘what would become of me? They’re dreadfully fond of beheading people here; the great wonder is, that there’s any one left alive!’ (Carroll, 2022, p. 55)
Immersed in a threatening environment, Alice maintains serenity and assesses the situation, anticipating potential conflicts. Through observation, she devises strategies and strives to prevent fear from subduing her, highlighting that many borders often prove to be hostile and challenging, demanding resilience, calmness, and rationality in moments when we simply aim to feel welcomed.
As she continues her adventures, Alice underscores the importance of internal and external dialogue in constructing a more comprehensive and inclusive understanding of the world and ourselves. Her journey through various symbolic borders highlights the complex process through which we delineate our identity, on the border of the possible, in the transition to becoming who we are. Thus, Alice did not pause before eccentric conversations and transformative rituals. She remained continually open to exploration and questioning, available for dialogue and interaction with others, no matter how strange they might seem. Faced with each new experience, a persistent question guided her: Who am I?
“Who am I then? Tell me that first, and then, if I like being that person, I’ll come up: if not, I’ll stay down here till I’m somebody else”—’but, oh dear!’ […] I am so very tired of being all alone here!’ (Carroll, 2022, p. 11)
‘Who are you?’ said the Caterpillar.
This was not an encouraging opening for a conversation. Alice replied, rather shyly, ‘I—I hardly know, sir, just at present—at least I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I think I must have been changed several times since then.’
‘What do you mean by that?’ said the Caterpillar sternly. ‘Explain yourself!’
‘I can’t explain myself, I’m afraid, sir’ said Alice, ‘because I’m not myself, you see.’ ‘I don’t see,’ said the Caterpillar. ‘I’m afraid I can’t put it more clearly,’ Alice replied very politely, ‘for I can’t understand it myself to begin with; and being so many different sizes in a day is very confusing.’ (Carroll, 2022, p. 28-29)
Certainly, Alice transcended successive borders. In seeking an exit, she embarked on journeys that were not merely physical transitions from one place to another but rather encounters with the diversity within herself. This represented a unique opportunity for growth through the exploration of an unknown world that she so eagerly sought to understand.
Have you ever considered how many moments in your life you’ve reflected on who you are and what you truly want? Have you had unexpected encounters or interactions that challenged all your expectations? How did you respond to that feeling? Have you ever felt alone and lost? What strategies or approaches did you use to overcome these feelings?
The dialogues between Alice and the fantastical characters highlight, among other issues, the challenge of establishing communication between different forms of existence, a cross-border communication. However, the essence of her journey has always been the pursuit of self-knowledge in and through herself, in the other, and through the Other, without prejudice or judgement, in motion, creating dynamics to overcome the challenges we all face when crossing borders in the construction of our identities, in the dialectics of “I-We” (Dubar, 2006). We believe that this represents the significant opportunity to live between borders, possibly the most crucial for our humanisation—an opportunity inherently linked to the dimension of self-awareness, a sense of belonging, and acceptance of the Other in interaction and intersubjectivity.
And you, what do you think about this?
2.2. Beyond symbolic borders: voices of uruguayan Portuguese speakers
Alice’s symbolic borders mirror the diverse realities of the geographical borders scattered around the world and the complex and sometimes disturbing ways of being and feeling of the inhabitants of these regions. In this instalment, we’ll take you to a border located in Latin America where an oral variety of Portuguese is spoken: Uruguayan Portuguese.
This dialect is spoken on the Uruguay-Brazil border. It is a local variety within a diglossic sociolinguistic context. In other words, the sociolinguistic reality in the departments of this strip (Artigas, Rivera, Cerro Largo and Rocha) is characterised by social bilingualism: the communities understand and communicate in the two border languages, Portuguese and Spanish, but these languages take on different social roles. In fact, while Spanish is considered the language of prestige, the vast majority of Portuguese speakers speak a local variety that is strongly stigmatised in social terms (Carvalho, 2007).
This diglossic situation can be explained by the historical trajectory of these languages. As several linguists attest, Portuguese was the only language spoken in border communities until the end of the 19th century, when Spanish entered the region (Barrios, 2018; Brovetto et al., 2007; Carvalho, 2003; Elizaincín & Behares, 1981). Since language is power, the linguistic policies of José Pedro Varela, a Uruguayan politician, writer and journalist in the 19th century, imposed one nation-one language: Spanish.
- “Quando chega gente de fora em casa a gente fala uruguaio, não sei porquê, mas depois já empeza a rotina de volta, falamo brasileiro” [“When people from abroad come to our house, we speak Uruguayan, I don’t know why, but then we change the routine back home, we speak Brazilian”], says a 19-year-old student (Carvalho, 2007, p. 56).
Another teenager, aged 17, said
- “Cuando mi novio y yo empezamos a salir hablamos sólo uruguayo, después con el tiempo fuimos empezando a hablar brasilero y hoy sólo hablamos brasilero” “When my boyfriend and I first started dating we only spoke Uruguayan, then over time we started speaking Brazilian and today we only speak Brazilian”][(Carvalho, 2007, p. 55).
In geographical terms, Uruguayan Portuguese is more prevalent among people on the outskirts of urban centres and in extensive rural regions. “Nos bairro a gente fala português, no centro não” [“We speak Portuguese in the neighbourhood, but not in the centre”], says a 9-year-old child (Carvalho, 2007, p. 54). Uruguayan Portuguese is therefore a linguistic variety that is doubly minorised and peripheral: it is spoken mainly by rural speakers or those from the outskirts of urban centres, which are generally populated by people with low economic resources.
Despite being a language of solidarity and social unification, which unites and identifies Uruguay’s border culture, Uruguayan Portuguese is socially discredited, with negative effects on its vitalisation and consequences in terms of linguistic and social discrimination against those who speak it, and family language policies, where parents only communicate in Spanish with their children, leading to linguistic behaviour that assimilates the prestigious language: “Eu não deixo minhas filhas falar português comigo. Eu falo brasilero com o meu pai mas cambeo pro uruguaio pra falar com as gurisa” [“I don’t let my daughters speak Portuguese to me. I speak Brazilian with my father, but I switch to Uruguayan to talk to the children”], says a 35-year-old woman from Rivera (Carvalho, 2007, p. 61).
Uruguayan Portuguese is known and recognised by its speakers as portunhol/portuñol, entreverado, bayano, fronteirizo, brasilero, who, sometimes with shame, sometimes with pride, highlight a particular feature of the border identity of these Uruguayan citizens: “Nem que nós queira falar em espanhol não nos sai bem porque nós falemo portunhol.” [“Even if we want to speak in Spanish, we won’t do well because we speak Portunhol.”] (Doris, in Vozes das Margens – Avance Documental).
Based on the work in progress of the documentary “Vozes das Margens” (Voices from the Margins), directed by Ana Maria Carvalho, we will travel through the voices of Uruguayan Portuguese speakers who express identity constructions and feelings similar to our Alice in Wonderland. In this way, the symbolic boundaries of a literary reality meet and merge with a very contemporary reality in the north of Uruguay.
How would you feel if, suddenly, you found yourself at a crossroads?
Crossroads are geographical and/or symbolic spaces that lead to new paths, but also to many hesitations and doubts. Faced with a crossroads, we are urged to make decisions. Many of these decisions are reflected in behaviour that, for different reasons, takes us away from paths that bring us closer to other people from different contexts and realities. Let’s take a look at the following voices:
“Eles dizem ‘aquellos de la frontera’” (Sandra) “Depois que eu falo dizem ‘sos brasilero’ e eu digo ‘não, cresci na fronteira pero não sou brasileiro’” (Arturo) “Em Montevideu me chamavam a canária. Meus tios me levavam. Havia uns gallego. Eu tampoco entendia o que eles falavam. Me dava má impressão porque eles me estavam chamando a canária, palavra meia feia, não sei, talvez me chamavam que eu não tinha valor nenhum” (Eva) “They say ‘those from the border’” (Sandra) “After I speak they say ‘sos brasilero’ and I say ‘no, I grew up on the border but I’m not Brazilian’” (Arturo) “In Montevideo they called me the Canary. My uncles took me. There were some Gallego people. I didn’t understand what they were saying either. It gave me a bad impression because they were calling me the Canary, a kind of ugly word, I don’t know, maybe they were calling me worthless” (Eva) |
These voices of frontier speakers of Uruguayan Portuguese show behaviours that are different from those of Uruguayan speakers from the south, who identify those from the north as Brazilians or from a socially peripheral space within the Uruguayan nation: “aquellos de la frontera”. But who are these border people?
Who am I ?
Feeling that they speak a socially marginalised language that is not considered by the majority of the population to be a national language, but which is their language, Uruguayan Portuguese speakers live at a constant crossroads, a crossroads that manifests itself in the way they see this (their) border identity space.
“Falemo misturado, algo nosso” (Beetoven) “Eu sei que sou uruguaio, mas bueno nasci assim vou morrer assim” (Ezequiel) “Eu e o marido fomos criados falando portunhol e seguimos falando até hoje portunhol” (Teresita) “Não me vejo falando em uruguayo, não me vejo o dia a dia uruguayo. Eu acho que sou assim. Isso já vem do pai, da mãe, do avô, da avó. Eu acho que já vem deles. Eu acho que herdei isso deles” (Ana) “Let’s talk mixed, something of ours” (Beethoven) “I know I’m Uruguayan, but bueno I was born this way and I’ll die this way” (Ezequiel) “My husband and I were brought up speaking Portunhol and we still speak Portunhol today” (Teresita) “I don’t see myself speaking in Uruguayan, I don’t see myself everyday Uruguayan. I think I’m like that. It comes from my father, mother, grandfather and grandmother. I think it comes from them. I think I inherited it from them” (Ana) |
Ana, Teresita, Ezequiel and Beethoven awaken us to their hybrid reality, of something mixed but deeply their own. As well as being a heritage language, passed down from generation to generation, these voices also emphasise that speaking Uruguayan Portuguese, their mother tongue, implies a way of seeing and being in the world.
What would it be like if we were forbidden to speak our mother tongue? What realities would be consigned to oblivion? Who would we be, anyway?
Throughout their lives, Uruguayan Portuguese speakers are victims of discrimination, which is particularly evident when they start school. At school, not only do many teachers not understand their language, but they are also subjected to situations that we now identify as bullying.
“É comum que se riam, que se burlem, que notem, que percebam essa diferença mas que atribuam a ela um caráter negativo” (Jorge) “Às vezes no tempo de liceu se riam e diziam campañola porque estava falando alguma palavra mas eu não dava a importância mínima. Eu deixava quieto seguia falando” (Teresita) “Eu na escola aí também falava este idioma, nomá, e em espanhol muy difícil, eu sabia as perguntas, sabia fazer, levantava a mão, mas todos queriam que eu falasse em espanhol, mas eu não falava e ficava quieto, nomá, na minha. Eu queria falar no meu idioma” (Ezequiel) “It’s common for people to laugh, to make fun of it, to notice it, to realise this difference but to attribute a negative character to it” (Jorge) “Sometimes in high school they laughed and said campañola because I was saying something, but I didn’t give a damn. I kept quiet and carried on talking” (Teresita) “At school I also spoke this language, nomá, and in Spanish it was muy difficult. I knew the questions, I knew how to ask them, I raised my hand, but everyone wanted me to speak in Spanish, but I didn’t and I kept quiet, nomá, in my own language. I wanted to speak in my own language” (Ezequiel) |
The discrimination to which they are subjected sometimes leads to feelings of fear and insecurity: Ezequiel wouldn’t take part in lessons because everyone wanted him to speak Spanish, but he just wanted to speak his own language, as did Teresita, who resiliently continued to speak her mother tongue regardless of the jokes and laughter of her schoolmates.
In an exercise of empathy, have you ever imagined yourself in the shoes of Ezequiel, Jorge and Teresita? How would you feel about the behaviour of others? How would you act?
There are many individual and social consequences for those who speak Uruguayan Portuguese:
“Posso falar bem ou posso falar mal porque eu não sei falar bem” (Sandra) “Eu acho que falar bem sempre o uruguayo eu acho que não vou poder falar” (Ana) “Tem niños que falam o portunhol e tem niños que falam o espanhol, porque já ensinam nas casas que eles têm de falar em espanhol” (Teresita) “I can speak well or I can speak badly because I don’t know how to speak well” (Sandra) “I don’t think I can always speak Uruguayan well” (Ana) “There are children who speak Portunhol and there are children who speak Spanish, because they’re taught in their homes that they have to speak in Spanish” (Teresita) |
As a result of discriminatory situations, speakers feel that they don’t speak well and that they live at the crossroads of linguistic insecurity, both in relation to their mother tongue and in relation to Spanish. What’s more, since they don’t want their children to go through the same experiences, they only communicate with the younger generations in the language of prestige.
To survive the Borderlands you must live sin fronteras be a crossroads.
Living on Uruguay’s borders proves to be an intrinsic challenge, but also a unique opportunity for its inhabitants. Just as Alice’s adventures in Wonderland led her to face challenges that moulded her journey, life on Uruguay-Brasil’s symbolic borders requires courage and resilience. However, it is in this multifaceted context, where Uruguayan Portuguese creates a unique web of cultural identity, that we find a unique opportunity to preserve, celebrate and enrich a narrative that is drawn at the intersection of different languages and cultures. Faced with linguistic stigmatisation, the inhabitants of these borders have the chance to reaffirm their cultural uniqueness, turning challenges into opportunities to strengthen and build a rich and valuable collective identity.
Unit 3. Borders as a linguistic, cultural and human experience
In the previous unit, we explored the concept of borders through the exploration of two distinct types: Alice’s personal borders and the geopolitical boundaries of the Uruguayan-Brazilian border. Building on this foundation, our journey into the intricacies of borders continues and expands in this unit.
Throughout this unit, you will immerse yourself in a diverse range of daily, professional, and aesthetic experiences encountered by individuals inhabiting border regions. These narratives will provide you with valuable insights into the complexities of daily life, the dynamics of professional pursuits, and the nuances of aesthetic expression within these vibrant and dynamic spaces. Get ready to explore and gain a deeper understanding of the multifaceted experiences that define life in and around borders.
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
- participate in, observe, and reflect upon the myriad daily, professional, and aesthetic experiences that define life in border regions;
- gain a deeper appreciation for the diversity that characterises these areas and the multiple forms inhabitants interact and live;
- recognise borders as creative spaces;
- challenge preconceived notions as you explore borders not as mere geographical lines but as creative spaces where unique identities and cultures intersect and emerge;
- understand the potential for creativity and innovation that arises from the confluence of different linguistic and cultural words.
3.1. Journeying through borderlands
In this section, you will explore diverse border regions as we introduce you to a curated selection of resources from different border regions. It offers a window into the unique cultural and linguistic dynamics of various borderlands. From the ebb and flow of daily life to the nuances of professional and aesthetic experiences, these resources provide a lens through which you will explore the interconnected tapestry of language, culture, and education.
So, let’s begin our exploration, delving into the vibrant stories and perspectives woven into the fabric of the Uruguayan-Brazilian border, as illustrated in figure 6 below.
In unit 2, we explored this border through Vozes das Margens (Carvalho & Machado, 2023). It unfolds a narrative of discrimination, exclusion, and marginalisation, with language as the initial focal point extending to encompass various facets of human experience, such as poverty, distance, and decentralisation. We commence our journey through borderlands on the same border. The Uruguayan writer Fabian Severo contributes to the discourse by crafting works in portunhol. In his book Noite nu Norte (2010), we find his poem Trinticuatro, which delves into conflicts arising from using his language in an educational setting. As an exercise, read the poem while keeping in mind how this multifaceted exploration invites us to consider the complexities of language, identity, and education in the Uruguay-Brazil border region.
Now, shifting our focus to the Portuguese-Spanish border (figure 7), which has maintained an almost identical demarcation since the establishment of the Treaty of Alcañices in 1297, marking over 800 years of continuity. Remarkably, it stands as the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, having been free of border control since March 26, 1995, following the Schengen Agreement’s implementation, which abolished internal borders, creating a passport-free zone in Europe.
We commence embarking on an educational project that fosters a collective, creative, and trilingual experience:
The Ponte…nas ondas! (PNO!) project aims to safeguard the intangible cultural heritage on the Portuguese-Galician border by creating spaces in which heritage can be practised and transmitted to younger generations. Initially developed in schools of the municipalities of Salvaterra de Miño (Spain) and Monção (Portugal), the project later spread to many other schools and institutions. More recently, this living heritage has been studied and analysed for educational purposes by teachers and researchers from PNO! association, with the support of tradition bearers, practitioners and specialists from universities in the region.
The PNO! project has allowed young people to get involved in the practice and transmission of their own traditions thanks to the dissemination of cultural heritage in schools, the training of teachers, the presence of bearers and practitioners in classrooms to share their knowledge and experience, and the use of information and communications technology and radio resources to transmit, promote and enhance the shared intangible cultural heritage (https://ich.unesco.org/en/BSP/portuguese-galician-border-ich-a-safeguarding-model-created-by-pontenas-ondas-01848).
As part of your learning journey, we invite you to watch